Sofia Cavalletti

Dr. Sofia Cavalletti: An Accidental Religious Educator of Children

Sofia Cavalletti had no experience with children until she was in her 30s. She had no training in education or human development. Yet her life's work and passion came to be one that would enable children as young as three years of age to experience awe and wonder as they encounter God through the biblical story. This work is called Catechesis of the Good Shepherd (CGS).

A Brief Look at Her Life

No one is more surprised than Dr. Cavalletti that people want to know about her life. She is so surprised, in fact, that as the years have passed, she has become increasingly reluctant to talk about herself because she says that this work "is a pure gift given to her" (Cavalletti, 2007a). Instead, she chooses to talk only about the children and the work, which she does not regard as hers. The Web site of the home page of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd in the United States www.cgsusa.org makes no mention of Cavalletti, supporting her desire to be in the background. Consequently, writing a biographical sketch was challenging. This even included a visit to Rome in an unsuccessful attempt to interview this 89-year-old scholar. The end result is that this article contains first-person electronic information from Sofia herself as well as secondary sources from books and persons who have had ongoing working relationships with Dr. Cavalletti. Some information in this biography was obtained in person by interviewing two people whom Sofia trained while on trips to the United States-Carol Dittberner (St. Paul, MN, trained in 1974, the date of Sofia's first course in the U.S) and Judy Schmidt (Glen Ellyn, IL, trained in 1984). Carol and Judy have been trainers themselves ever since.

Sofia was born in Italy on August 21, 1917. The home where she lives, where she was born and has spent all her life, has been in her Roman Catholic family for about three centuries. What came to be her life work has been carried out in her own home in Rome, even though that work was not her original focus. Her home is located in the heart of Rome, within walking distance of the Vatican.

From a book edited by E. M. Standing, one gets a glimpse into the significance of her heritage. This work entitled The Child in the Church, repeatedly refers to her as Marchesa Cavalletti, a title similar to that of baroness.

Sofia writes of her childhood

First of all, it was my mother who taught me to write and read. This still makes me so happy and grateful to her for having put in my hands such a precious tool. I remember that, when for the first time I could read a little story by myself, I was so happy that I gave to Mommy all my money- that is to say, three coins that did not reach the value of one lire. My mother was delighted by the gift. She kept it for a long time. I found it after her death. I did not go normally to school until I was ten years old, because little girls of my social level usually had teachers who taught them at home (Cavalletti, 2007a).

When she finally attended school, she was sent to a ginnasio, a school at the same level as her brothers. There she learned, among other things, "Latin and Greek with great joy and pride." She attended ginnasio for five years. She says that she should have gone to liceo for three years, but that form of school was coed. Apparently, it was very unusual for a girl like Sofia to go to a "mixed" school. These extended years in ginnasio were "very unsatisfactory" as she studied different subjects. They continued until the end of the war (WWII), when she again began private studies that she undertook very seriously. At the end of a year of those studies, Sofia passed the exam to enter the university.

Sofia attributes her own Christian formation to her family. Her family proved a very solid base on which she was sure that she was loved. For her, the family was more significant than the church because "at that time, parish churches and convents offered-just catechism! And [she] just could not accept it (Cavalletti, 2007a). As she now looks back on her life, she is able to understand all that she was doing "was a pure gift."

As an undergraduate, she met Dr. Eugenio Zolli who had been the chief rabbi of Rome. When the war ended, Zolli entered the Catholic Church. He became the professor in her first Hebrew class (Berryman, 1983, 5). Under his tutelage, Sofia discovered that she had a love for ancient languages, particularly Hebrew. She says that "through him, I discovered the Jewish approach to the Bible, and this oriented my life (Cavalletti, 2007a). Sofia went on to obtain her doctorate in Hebrew and then became Zolli's colleague in the academy. His mentoring enabled her to become a scholar in her own right.

Sofia Cavalletti is truly an academic intellectual. Because of her expertise in Hebrew Scriptures, she was a member of the ecumenical commission of the dioceses of Rome and of the Ecumenical commission of the Italian Bishops. She is a voracious reader, devouring the works of philosophers and theologians such as Paul Ricoeur, Jean Daniélou, Louis Bouyer, and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. For fifty years she went to the library every day to study, and she reads Hebrew daily. The extent of her scholarship is evident from a bibliography created in 1978. It contained 165 entries of her work up to that time. (An English bibliography was not found.) She has an affinity for languages. She is familiar with Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and she can converse in five modern languages.

In 1954, a colleague of Maria Montessori, Adele Costa Gnocchi, asked Sofia to teach religion at her school. A seven-year-old named Paolo responded to the Scripture lesson wholeheartedly. In time this experience led to the development of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. Sofia writes about this experience:

As for my involvement with children, I would never have thought that Catechesis would have become the work of my life, until I saw a child's eyes filled with tears. It happened after having had a meeting with three or four children, a meeting that I thought would be followed with a few other meetings and then stop forever. Paolo, after having spent two hours with me, reading the first account of creation in Genesis, did not want to leave. I was very impressed and I asked myself, "What have we done? Why did Paolo not want to leave?" His mother had told me [earlier] that he had not been very willing to come (Cavalletti, 2006).

Sofia had no preconceived idea of what should happen when working with Paolo, but she was amazed that he responded with such deep joy. Perhaps her thorough knowledge of Scripture enabled her to talk about God in a way that opened and intrigues the child, because, from then on, watching the face of the child became a marker for her for what was essential for the child to experience and know about God. She saw in Paolo and in numerous children since, "a way of being in the presence of God that is both unique to the child and a gift to the adult who stops long enough to notice."

After this experience with Paolo, Gianna Gobbi, was sent by Costa Gnocchi to collaborate with Cavalletti. Gobbi was an able, experienced Montessori teacher who had trained directly under Montessori and also was an assistant of Montessori. Cavalletti never met Montessori (who died in 1952), but through the expertise of Gobbi, she learned Montessori's principles. Cavalletti states that Paolo became the impetus that "oriented the life both of Gianna and myself" from that point forward.

Thus, in 1954, Catechesis of the Good Shepherd was established based on Montessori principles. Early on, they determined that their work would not happen in a classroom but in an atrium (a place of life and preparation that is sometimes referred to as a worship-education center); they would not see themselves as teachers but catechists (guides in religious instruction).

Cavalletti and Gobbi "kept meeting with an increasing number of children, trying different themes and trying to create material according to the Montessori principles." Initially, the meetings with the children took place in a small space in Costa Gnocchi's school. Soon that space was inadequate as more and more children came for "instruction." So, the two women determined that relocating Catechesis into Sofia's home would work well. Three rooms were designated as atria, each directed toward a different age level for learning the Scriptures and liturgy. The room in which Sofia was born became her study.

As CGS was unfolding, Sofia carefully studied the developmental theorists of that day who were just beginning to gain attention, including Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget. But she always returned to the work and principles of Maria Montessori, principles such as the child's great capacity for concentration, love of order and silence, and delight in work. (See the entry for Maria Montessori on this Web site for a description of Montessori's work.) The development of this work is evident in the progression of her writing beginning in the early 1960s.

According to Cavalletti, she and Gobbi made many mistakes and had to throw away some of the materials they had created as they searched to find the essential themes and elements that correspond to the needs of the children. Only materials that aroused much interest and deep joy were kept. They were seeking the most essential and the simplest materials that would help the personal work of the children so that the children would be able to grasp the message of the Scripture or the liturgy. Therefore, anything that was not essential was removed from the atrium. Their ongoing quest has been to " 'know, love, and serve the child,' especially in regard to his or her relationship with God" (Gobbi, 1998, viii).

As soon as they established the essential elements for a presentation, the contents do not change-even after fifty years. That is because the themes of Scripture are consistent; the purpose of the church is ancient. Therefore, there is no need for change. (Note: This writer has experienced the way these time-tested materials are able to engage children deeply when presentations are presented in a prepared environment by a trained catechist.)

Sofia prefers to keep the attention on the children and the work, not on herself because, as a catechist, she is "just an unprofitable servant." Nevertheless, through Sofia's training of other catechists, she has produced a global network of catechists for Catechesis of the Good Shepherd in a variety of Christian traditions. In the 1970s, religious educators from North America were trained in CGS when Sofia made a trip to St. Paul, Minnesota. Other visits to the United States and Mexico for the same purpose soon followed.

In 2003, Sofia lost her work partner of fifty years. Gianna's death was difficult for Sofia, but she still carries on the work in her home. As of fall, 2006, at age 89, with the assistance of one or two others, Sofia continues to lead children every Monday afternoon in the three atria she has set up in her home.

Cavalletti's passion for this work comes from her attraction to the biblical text and her acquired delight in working with and learning from children. Having translated several Old Testament books, she declares her love for the Bible because she learns so much from translating whole books from Hebrew or Greek. The years she has spent doing biblical and liturgical catechesis with children have shown her children's deep and mysterious relationship with God, a relationship that she feels is much more serious than that of adults, and one that they are more vitally capable of enjoying.

Not surprisingly, as CGS has spread, modifications of Cavalletti's and Gobbi's work developed. Some of these variations are known as Godly Play (developed by Jerome Berryman), Young Children and Worship (developed by Sonya Stewart and Jerome Berryman), Beulah Land (developed by Gretchen Wolff Pritchard), and The Way of the Child (published by Upper Room). It is not difficult to trace the evolution of these newer approaches from the Montessori Method through Catechesis of the Good Shepherd to their current forms. As far as curricular structure goes, CGS appears to be the most developed, however modifications must be made for CGS to be used by many Protestant churches, especially those without historic liturgical traditions.

Cavalletti is concerned that the word "play," when associated with this type of work by the children, will diminish the fact that the relationship of the child to God is very deep and serious though joyful (Cavalletti, 2006). This joy of the child is deep and, according to Cavalletti, very different than the kind of exuberant, laughter-filled joy when children are typically "playing." Also, everything associated with CGS and its national associations is operated on a not-for-profit basis. This is not true for some of the variations of this work.

Cavalletti is thrilled that CGS is being used by many Christian traditions, and she welcomes modifications that enable it be used even more broadly. She never expected this kind of ecumenical reception. She praises God that its use is ever-expanding without marketing effort on anyone's part. She is also gratified that so much of the work is led by lay people and takes place in very poor environments.

Every year Dr. Cavalletti writes an annual report of the work of Catechesis for the Italian association. Her report for 2006 includes the following (2007b, 4-7): 27,000 children in the Diocese of Chihuahua, Mexico, alone attend Catechesis. Eight hundred catechists gathered for the national meeting.

In central Italy, a general presentation about Catechesis was given to the Institute of Religious Science. The presentation had to be relocated in order to accommodate the five hundred people who attended.

In Panama, at the Montessori Center for Spirituality, there is a pre-atrium of ten children from eighteen months to two years of age. These very young children respond the same way as children over three, something that has astounded the catechists.

In Nashville, Tennessee, maximum security prisoners had been in Bible studies. An Episcopal catechist noticed that after she presented the visual materials of CGS, she was able to notice that the prisoners changed from having "knowledge in the mind to knowledge in the heart."

In Guadalajara, Mexico, one thousand children participate in CGS, three hundred of whom are children of prisoners. Also, one hundred of them are blind.

Current research is taking place in Argentina that seeks to determine a "theology" of the children by examining younger children's depiction of the Good Shepherd and older children's art of biblical history.

Children take great delight in being part of Catechesis. Dr. Cavalletti writes,

It is an incontestable fact, to which we have borne and still bear witness, that children come with joy to their religious instruction; a fact which does not seem as natural to some people as to others. Most people think that it is necessary to attract children to religious instruction by means which are external to the subject itself, such as games, rewards, amusements of various kinds. We have established, on the other hand, that children come to us as to a feast; and often, after two hours fully devoted to lessons, it is still quite an effort to get them to go home (1965, 124).

Cavalletti poses a challenge to Christian educators and North American churches: "It is so important to convince the adults that children are spiritual beings." A veteran catechist said to Sofia that "it is easier to be converted to God than to the child." Sofia fears she is right (Cavalletti, 2007a).

The Structure and Principles of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd

Using a carefully prepared environment as did Montessori, Sofia Cavalletti and Gianna Gobbi realized by watching children that the children can be very good teachers for adults. These two women spent years answering the question: What aspects of the Christian faith speak most fully to a child at particular stages of her or his human development? Their careful observation of children revealed the children's ability to reflect deeply and thoughtfully. Sofia and Gianna noted that three characteristics-joy, dignity and essentiality-were evident when the children appeared to be able to meet their inner desire for relationship with God and for a spiritual home. "Eventually, Cavalletti heard a unifying theme in what the child was tacitly saying to the adult: help me, but only with just enough help to discover for myself this great love God has for each of us" (Kaufman, 2003, 1). She works from the theological assumption that Catechesis offers children the opportunity to relate to God whom "they innately know and perceive." It is not a "catechesis of definition but a catechesis of invitation" (Delsorte, 2003, 3).

Other assumptions influence Cavalletti's thinking. First and most importantly, she assumes that a child is able to experience God. Second, this experience is a global one for the child in that it touches the child's whole, entire being; she feels that this is a natural part of what it means to be human. Third, a person is not fully developing as a human unless "religious potential is stimulated and growing." Fourth, Cavalletti assumes that the Judeo-Christian tradition is the language that is a powerful agent-evocative, descriptive, and expressive for experiencing God (Berryman, 1983, 9).

Cavalletti believes that this form of catechesis has "refound its biblical content," and, by focusing on the use of parables, as Jesus did, rather than on formulae and definitions, it has "refound the biblical method" (1984, 88). Parables invite meditation as they connect the reality of daily life with the reality of the Kingdom of God. The parable is not to be explained, which would "treat it like a definition" and "to betray its nature" (89). She discourages the use of isolated verses of Scripture to illustrate a point that would prevent the listener from having a direct experience with the Word of God for herself or himself. She advocates giving the listeners the passage complete in itself so that they may dialog with the texts, "have a living encounter with them" (91). A Bible scholar notes that Catechesis is "thoroughly inundated in Scripture," going "far beyond a mere exposure to key stories, sayings and parables." By encouraging even young children to reflect deeply about the meaning of the passages, they are able to work with the materials for long periods of time, even "stunning their teachers with their insights" (Molinari, n.d.).

Cavalletti writes (1983, 62), "The adult who accepts the silent request of the child: 'Help me to come closer to God by myself,' must choose the way to give the child the help he asks for. We are faced with three possibilities: catechesis may be theocentric, Christocentric, or anthropocentric." She deduced that a catechesis that is theocentric would speak of God the Father and follow the "historical development of revelation." But the young child needs first to know and experience Jesus Christ, the only way to know God the Father.

Catechesis of the Good Shepherd has three levels. Level I, for three- to six-year-olds, has as its unifying theme the parable of the Good Shepherd in order to help each young child fall in love with the Good Shepherd, which is an individual response. Level II focuses on the True Vine and the Branches, for children six to nine, to help them understand their connectedness to each other "in the Vine." This level introduces Redemption History, enabling children to begin to clarify God's vision for his people. The theme of Level III, for nine- to twelve- year-olds, goes more deeply into Redemption History, from Creation to Parousia (words the children learn to use comfortably). Children at this stage of development hopefully will realize that this history is one story of one God with God's own people-a story in which they connect to God, to each other, and to the faith community. CGS uses the biblical word covenant to describe this connection or relationship. Both Levels II and III present "moral parables" and other biblical texts that enable moral development of the children. In particular, "the hard sayings of Jesus," or maxims, from the Sermon on the Mount are given attention. This attention is "truly the result of a biblical scholar [Cavalletti] paired with observing children, because those 'sayings' circulated independently in the early church, just as we give them to the children on separate tablets. Even the maxim tablets are suggestive of the 'Law' that Jesus came not to abolish but to fulfill" (Lillig, 2007).

Cavalletti uses parables as the core stories for the first level because that was the method Jesus used to introduce the mystery of the Kingdom of God. As she and Gobbi observed children in her atrium, they noticed that the children were most frequently drawn to the parable of the Good Shepherd, some children return repeatedly to reflect on that story or to do the same "work" over and over. Also, through her research she realized that parables enable children to respond with awe and wonder about what God might be revealing through those texts. (This finding is counter-intuitive in that cognitive stage theory seems to infer that young children should first be introduced to concrete narratives. Typical evangelical curriculum views the parables as abstract in that the "meaning" of the parable is not in the objects of the parable. Popular perception assumes that children cannot grasp such abstractions. CGS saves the Old Testament narratives for older children.) Because the Christian message is solidly based on history, so must be the catechesis (Cavalletti, 2007a). Therefore, in Level I the narratives of the birth and life of Jesus are presented in order to help children realize that Jesus is a real person who lived on earth at a real place and time. To aid this understanding these young children do engaging work with the geography of Israel and Jerusalem in Jesus' day.

Fifteen to ninety children usually fit comfortably in an atrium, although the smaller numbers are more common in the U.S. This means that churches with large numbers of children often offer CGS multiple times during the week. Each atrium is a place for worship and reflection, not instruction, although learning inevitably happens. It is a place where children and the materials are respected-a place where the relationship between faith experience and faith language is realized. The atrium "work" becomes a conversation with God. Cavalletti states it this way: "All works in the atrium are either a passage to prayer or prayer itself" (Delsorte, 2003, 5).

The materials provided are linked closely with the Scriptures. These include maps of Jerusalem and Palestine, Christian and liturgical symbols, and figures and materials for biblical presentations. There is an altar area for prayer and singing together. Level II also includes work with the canon and genres of Scripture; Level III delves into elementary work in Hebrew. But in Level I, as in Montessori schools, there is an area for activities of daily life in which young children learn to be careful as they work with china and crystal, get experience pouring water, and cleaning up after themselves. The catechist uses furniture that is the same size as the furniture for the children in order to reduce the size disparity between the adult and young children.

Yet CGS does not encourage an abundance of work materials. It is not necessary to have material for every theme presented. "[T]he fundamental instrument for transmitting the faith is communicating the Word as faithfully as possible to the text. Saint Paul says, 'Faith comes through hearing' (Romans 10:17)" (Cavalletti, 2007b, 11).

Cavalletti and Gobbi realized that a "method of signs" or symbols, a common language of the Bible and of liturgy, can serve as tools to help the child find meaning and direction in the atrium (Berryman, 1983, 11). "Signs" point to the mystery that is the experience of God. This experience enables the religious potential of child a potential that is "spontaneous" and virtually innate, requiring the caution that a catechist should not be "over-controlling" in the atrium (15). Here is how Tina Lillig, the National Director of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd writes about these "signs" or materials on the home page of the Web site:

You may be wondering how these materials help the religious life of children. If an adult hears a beautiful passage from the Bible, the adult might take a Bible, find the passage, and read it slowly again and again. He or she may think deeply about the words and perhaps speak to God in a thankful or hopeful prayer. But a little child, too young to read, needs another way. In an atrium the child can ponder a biblical passage or a prayer from the liturgy by taking the material for that text and working with it-placing wood figures of sheep in a sheepfold of the Good Shepherd, setting sculpted apostles around a Last Supper table, or preparing a small altar with the furnishings used for the Eucharist. Older children who [can] read often copy parables from the Bible, [place in sequence] written prayers from the rite of baptism, or label a long time line showing the history of the kingdom of God. (Lillig n.d.)

Cavalletti believes that the child's first exposure to the faith should be centered in the person of Jesus Christ. From her research, the aspect of Christ that most speaks to the young child is Jesus the Good Shepherd, who calls his sheep by name creating a personal relationship with him, who lays down his life for the sheep, nurtures and protects them. Because of the emphasis Catechesis places on Jesus the Good Shepherd, usually children soon realize that he is the center of the Christian faith. Cavalletti starts with this center and works outward; she does not present the biblical story chronologically until Level III. She feels that not until the upper elementary years, will children be developmentally ready to grasp more ably the typology of Christ in God through both testaments.

The catechist's role is to prepare the environment for the children and to present materials that encourage the children to respond to God's love. The catechist is a co-witness with the children, listening to them and with them as they ask, "Who are You, God?" and "How do You love us?" The catechist is the initial go-between in this relationship through the presentations and dialogues during prayer time. The catechist suggests meditative questions that come from the Bible stories or parables for the children to grasp and hold in their hearts. These conversations together with the prepared environment help to foster the children's relationship with God as they express themselves through art, songs, and prayers.

The atria of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd, in ways for to adults in the United States, resemble retreat centers for adults, but the furnishings are scaled to the size of the child (Gobbi, 1998). The central area of any atrium is reserved for the Scripture presentation. One corner is a carefully prepared space for prayer. Other areas contain story materials and response materials. Children may "need up to two hours in order to engage fully in their chosen work" (39). In some atria, very young children may start with 45 minutes and then build up to longer time periods.

Children are prepared to "be in the space" by receiving instruction as to how the space is set up, how to work with the materials and furniture, and how to manage their own bodies in a controlled manner. Norms of behavior are established, such as speaking softly and moving carefully. Instructions about movement are done in the manner of Montessori so that children will feel age-appropriately competent and independent-able to manage themselves well without adult intervention. Learning in the atria is based on the Montessori method. Before children begin participation in CGS, parents are usually oriented to the purpose and structure of the atrium. Parents also receive guidance as to how they can support the atrium work in their own homes.

The experience in an atrium may begin with a time of welcoming-a time when children may want to gather in a space outside the atrium in order to greet each other and begin to quiet themselves "on the inside." An appropriate greeting in Level I especially might be to whisper the name of the child, along with a simple greeting.

Careful training of the catechists is core to the effectiveness of CGS. This training is prolonged and complex just as it is for the Montessori Method-at least a year cumulatively for each level. (In other words, there is at least three years of training to be a catechist for Level III. In spite of the extensive training, there are over two hundred Level III atria in the United States. This contrasts with many hundreds of Level I atria.) The curriculum is extensive and prepared by each catechist-three years worth of presentations for each level. These materials fill a three-inch thick binder for each level. Each catechist makes his or her own album of lesson presentations. This leads to considerable investment in time and labor by each catechist but also remarkable "ownership" of the material. The training proceeds slowly because "we [catechists] must be changed first" before we can begin working with the children (Molinari, n.d.). CGS requests that "the catechists make the material by their own hands as an important part of [their] formation" (Cavalletti, 2007).

A vision for the future of Catechesis in the United States is that it becomes more multi-cultural. Currently there is little presence in African-American churches.

Unexpected Outcomes from Cavalletti's work

At first glance, it would appear that Montessori's principles would not apply to children in a high energy, media-stimulated culture in the 21st century, but, upon closer examination, that is not the case. Children in widely diverse settings and experiences respond with an attitude of deep joy, reflection and contemplation.

Sofia and other catechists who are international trainers have found that the responses of the children are universally the same if the environment is properly prepared. Children's needs have not changed even though there now seems to be more children with behavioral disorders, but these women report that many children with special needs thrive in the environment of CGS.

Catechists who guide the work state that the time becomes richer and richer for them personally because the Gospel is alive, especially as contemporary life becomes more rushed, stress-filled, and internally noisy. One veteran catechist stated, "The work is fabulous. It changes me; it changes the child. Children [there] are able to do important theological work."

Another educator who participated in Level I training stated, "I had no idea that it was going to change the direction of my life, nor fill me with such joy, nor teach me what it truly means to 'become like a little child' and that 'to such belongs the Kingdom of Heaven'" (Delsorte, 2003).

If children become restless or bored, Sofia feels that the catechist has not carefully observed the child to determine what would best help the child engage in the biblical story. In fact, she states that a "disenchanted child does not exist in the atrium." Just as with any form of education, the experience for the child will in many ways depend on the training and skill of the catechist/teacher, and not all catechists have the commitment and passion of the founders.

Critiques of Catechesis of the Good Shepherd

As with most any ministry approach, CGS has its critics. This approach to the spiritual formation of children is only as effective as the catechists. (It takes many years to become an effective catechist who is able to "read" and understand each child. There are additional cumulative years for Level III.) This is true for a Montessori school or any other educational model, and it is true for Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. As a result, some parishes report a diminishment of interest by older children. Experienced trainers, and Sofia herself, attribute that to inexperience or lack of commitment on the part of the catechist. (Please note the testimony of one scholar in the next section. Experienced catechists consistently speak of the spiritual nurture, wonder, and awe that they themselves feel in an atrium.)

Dr. Cavalletti's response to the critics is exemplary; it is humble if it is anything. As a lifelong learner, she is willing to dialog with anyone about her work in order to strengthen the approach through new insights she may glean. Nonetheless, it is helpful to note areas of concern about which the Christian educator should be aware.

Jerome Berryman, whose variant model of CGS called Godly Play was referenced earlier, helpfully identifies the linguistic challenges in Cavalletti's writings, particularly for an English-speaking audience. Cavalletti, as did Montessori, "coins" terms relating to CGS but frequently does not provide precise definitions. Also of concern for him is her perspective on formal research methods (1983, 8). She is a biblical linguistic scholar, not a social scientist. Consequently, Cavalletti tends not to have a uniform way of reporting data or observations. It can be hard to tell sometimes if a reported incident is intended to demonstrate a child's "religious potential" or to show the complexity of a particular that concept. Descriptions may also be about various ages of children, different settings, even from parental reports, making it difficult to establish clear constructs or patterns that might lead to a "theory" of a child's religious potential-something Cavalletti is not likely interested in doing. Empirical support for such statements as "All works in the atrium are either a passage to prayer or prayer itself" is difficult to obtain. This research-oriented problem is greater in the first book on The Religious Potential (1983) than it is in the companion book about children from six to twelve years old (2002).

Longitudinal studies about Catechesis of the Good Shepherd are needed. Few exist. Even though responses may be multi-faceted and complex, questions such as the following need to be explored:

What long-term impact does Catechesis have on the faith formation of a person who was part of the three levels?

What influence does Catechesis have on the character development of a child?

In what ways does the adult faith of a person who experienced nine years of Catechesis differ from one who was part of nine years of Sunday school?

Future research of this type has been facilitated by Berryman's efforts to define Cavalletti's terms. This will be explained more fully in the next section.

Another concern is over the significance of experiences of "awe and wonder," two qualities that are intended to happen within the child in the atrium. This intent may be implicit, but often children, especially in Level I, are encouraged to "wonder" about the story presentation. For many children, this is helpful guidance that results in what appears to be careful reflection. Some religious educators suggest that true wonder cannot be directed-that leading or guiding reflections diminishes the wonder that should occur in a more spontaneous fashion (Hyde, 2004, 142). A catechist might respond that so much of contemporary life has squelched awe and wonder for children that the process needs to be facilitated for children until it those abilities are restored. Some also say that for wonder to be truly genuine, the catechist would have to also be a "co-wonderer." In response to this critique, many catechists would say that that is exactly what they are-"co-wonderers."

It is essential to follow the above concern about "awe and wonder" with comments that come directly from the leadership of CGS. According to Lillig (2007, 2), some of the variations of Catechesis that have emerged since the late 1970s place a much greater emphasis on "wonder" than does Cavalletti's work. These approaches invite the children to "wonder" about every aspect of the story. It would not happen this way in CGS. A catechist who had been carefully trained would formulate "meditation questions." Especially with the older children, the questions would more commonly be "'What strikes you?' 'What do you think Jesus wants to tell us?' 'Who could this king represent?' 'Why do you think so?' 'What truth is hidden in this parable (or narrative)?' Even with the little ones, we more commonly say 'How do you think Mary felt?' 'What made those magi follow that star?' The role of wonder in the atrium is more nourished by the drop of water that clings to the spout of the little pitcher, how tiny the mustard seed is, the sweet smell of the chrism, or the rising of the bread" (Lillig, 2007, 2). It is not as explicitly directed as is found in some of the CGS variations.

Catechesis of the Good Shepherd may not be a realistic option for large churches, especially non-denominational, evangelical churches that may minister weekly to more than one thousand children. An atrium should be limited to about fifteen children in order for the experience to be effective. Even if multiple sessions of Catechesis would be offered during the week, the logistics of providing for that many children might be overwhelming. CGS also places a lot of responsibility on the trained catechist to know and watch the child. This demand would challenge the volunteers that typically staff children's ministries in evangelical churches. It goes without saying that a higher level of commitment toward training would be required to implement any form of Catechesis in most evangelical churches.

On August 23, 2011, two days after her 94th birthday, Sofia entered into the presence of her Good Shepherd. The Church of Jesus Christ has been enriched by her approach to the spiritual nurture of children that is well grounded in her scholarly approach to scripture, theology, liturgy, and church history. Through her more than 50 years of work, those who minister with children have benefitted by her tireless work with children and her boundless love for them - all making it easier to help children fall in love with the Lord Jesus, their Good Shepherd.

These observations have been lost on far too many evangelical Christian educators, an impression noted by scholar David Sims. He writes that evangelicalism has failed theologically to appropriate findings about the child from the work of Montessori, Cavalletti, and others. In his view, "it is time for evangelicals to join Maria Montessori in her attempt to find the human in the child and Sofia Cavalletti in her bold claim that children should be our point of departure for anthropological inquiry into desire and relationality" (2004, 54). He affirms Cavalletti's position that it is the child that should be the "basis and reference" point for the understanding of persons, a concept that Cavalletti presents in a chapter on "Anthropological Catechesis" (1983, 168-178).

Having said all that, Catechesis is not the only formational experience that a church should offer to children. There is always room for fun outreach events, summer experiences like VBS, service and mission opportunities, and especially Christian nurture in the home. But CGS emphasizes what is missing in most evangelical children's ministries: reflection, contemplation, meditation, awe, wonder, and mystery. When these qualities are present, it affects not only the children but also the adults who are involved.

Here is the testimony of a biblical scholar who became involved with Catechesis:

In my own years of theological training and church ministry, I had come to experience a profound spiritual tiredness - the kind that is born of repeated disappointment in the way things are in the Church today. I had become sickened by the factionalism, the lack of love, the political infighting and blatant hypocrisy… It was in this state that I first encountered the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. As I studied Sofia's book and visited the atrium, I began to realize that I was being healed on the inside. Seeing the wonder in the children's eyes at hearing the parables of Jesus for the very first time and witnessing the way that their little hearts were so open to God touched me profoundly. It was as if something deep within me stirred again, something that I thought had died long ago. I began to remember why I came to study theology in the first place - not for prestige, accolades and degrees imparted by humanity but because of a search for a closer relationship with God. The deep faith and spirituality that saturates this program is a powerful reminder that the Holy Spirit is still intimately involved with our Church. It is hope for the future (Molinari, n.d.).

Christian educators will benefit from Berryman's efforts to make Cavalletti's concept of the child's religious potential observable. Berryman notes four aspects: a) it is an experience that is spontaneous rather than prompted by an adult; b) it is complex, involving feelings, thoughts, and actions; c) it is not limited to cultural conditioning; d) the experience is deep rather than simply sensory (1983, 10). These "criteria" are significant in light of the traditional evangelical view of needing to do things to or for children in order for the children to have a spiritual experience. Berryman goes on to describe characteristics of child's growth in this potential. They include a deep joy, "mysterious" knowledge or insight that does not come from the adult, awareness of meaning in the environment that is apart from the material itself, and a capacity for deep prayer of praise and gratitude (11).

David Hay and Rebecca Nye (1998), researchers in England, have aided educators and research into the spirituality of children by identifying the following qualities: mystery-sensing, awareness-sensing, value-sensing, and relational consciousness. The connection to Catechesis is evident. Cavalletti, through the use of two- or three-dimensional, manipulative materials, provides a tactile experience that draws on a key Montessori principle of educating the senses. As children work with these materials, according to Brendan Hyde, an Australian scholar, "they are engaging in opportunities to imagine, to transcend, and to make sense of the Scripture story in ways meaningful for them…[Their work] may at times encounter a window to this facet of children's spirituality" (2004,145).

Cavalletti's "theory" of Christian education is a based on a series of "constants" in the responses of the children. These constants transcend cultures and socio-economic factors. They are "the response of 'the child' to the Christian message" (Cavalletti, 2002, viii). Berryman attempts to define Cavalletti's use of the term "constants" by describing them as relationships-"relationships between the sensitive periods in the child's religious potential for different aspects of objects" and select objects from the Christian tradition (Berryman, 1983,14). For example, Cavalletti has found that constants for the young child are the relationship between the Good Shepherd and the child, as well as a relationship with a lighted candle representing "the Light of the world."

In Appendix I to The Religious Potential of the Child 6 to 12 Years, entitled "The Spirit of the Catechesis: 32 Points of Reflection," Dr. Cavalletti identifies her "theory" of Christian education more completely (2002, 133-138). Many of the 32 points or principles have subpoints. Although some of the points are relevant specifically for sacramental, liturgical traditions, here is a synthesis of just a few of these points: The child is central to the catechist who lives a shared experience with the child; the atrium is a community for children and adults to live together and also facilitate community with the wider faith family; The atrium is also a place of prayer (133); The Word is proclaimed in the most objective manner possible (134); The material must be attractive but "sober" and must strictly adhere to the theme being presented (136); The catechist is to prepare the materials with his or her own hands in order to absorb the content more deeply; "The attitude of the adult must be marked by humility before the capacities of the child" (137); CGS does not seek success or seek to be impressive, and it is to be in solidarity with the least in the church (138); and, significantly for all Christian educators, The atrium is a place in which the only Teacher is Christ because children and adults alike place themselves in a listening posture before his Word (134).

Christian education benefits from the faithful, patient, thorough work of Sofia Cavalletti. She has learned from the child what is essential to enable that child to have an experience with God that brings a response of awe and wonder. Her work resists contemporary cultural trends in order to let the child encounter the biblical story in age-appropriate ways. Christian educators and practitioners would do well to consider how her contribution through Catechesis of the Good Shepherd has relevance for ministry with children. We would also benefit fromwhat we might learn from the principles behind her work.

Works Cited

• Berryman, J. (1983). Preface to the English edition. In S. Cavalletti, Religious potential of the child (pp. 3-20). New York: Paulist Press.
• Catechesis of Good Shepherd. Retrieved March 17, 2007, from https://www.cgsusa.org/
• Cavalletti, S. (1964). The "Maria Montessori" school of religion (Rome). In E.M. Standing (Ed.), The child in the church (pp. 124-139). St. Paul: Catechetical Guild.
• Cavalletti, S. (1983). Religious potential of the child. New York: Paulist Press, 178.
• Cavalletti, S. (1984). The parable method and catechesis [Electronic version]. African Ecclesiastical Review, 26, 88-91.
• Cavalletti, S. (2002). The religious potential of the child 6 to 12 years old. Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications.
• Cavalletti, S. (2003). Remembering Gianna Gobbi. Retrieved November 12, 2006, from http://home1.gte.net/vze1wvcy/...
• Cavalletti, S. (2006). Electronic personal correspondence, Oct. 21, 2006.
• Cavalletti, S. (2007a). Electronic personal correspondence, May 24, 2007.
• Cavalletti, S. (2007b). Annual Report from the Italian Association. In Catehesi Del Buon Pastore, Foglietto N. 6, June 2007, 4-11.
• Delsorte, A. (2003). The spiritual child. Retrieved January 23, 2007, from http://aaaa.net.au/events/200309Conference/papers.htm
• Gobbi, G. (1998). Listening to God with children: The Montessori Method applied to the catechesis of children. Loveland, Ohio: Treehaus.
• Hay, D., & Nye, R. (1998). The spirit of the child. London: Fount.
• Hyde, B. (2004). Children's spirituality and "the Good Shepherd experience." Religious Education, 99 (2), 137-150.
• Kaufman, K. (2003). Beyond the atrium: A case study for the development of adult participation in the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. (Doctoral dissertation, Catholic Theological Union Seminary, 2003). WorldCat Dissertations, OCLC: 54348893.
• Lillig, T. (2007). Electronic personal correspondence, May 20, 2007.
• Lillig, T. National Association of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. (n.d.). Retrieved February 17, 2007, http://www.cgsusa.org/
• Molinari, A. L., The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd: A brief explanation and a theologian's testimonial. (n.d.) Retrieved February 17, 2007, from www.stjosepheducationalcenter.org/catechesis.htm
• National Association of the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. Retrieved February 17, 2007, https://www.cgsusa.org/discover/the-cgs-method-past/history/
• Sims, D. (2004, May 6-8). The child in American evangelicalism. A paper (Appendix II) presented at the Houston (TX) Consultation on Child Theology, 46-56.

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